Anno Domini (abbreviated as AD or A.D., sometimes found in the irregular form Anno Domine) and Before Christ (abbreviated as BC or B.C.) are designations used to label years in the Julian The Julian calendar, a reform of the Roman calendar, was introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, and came into force in 45 BC . It was chosen after consultation with the astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria and was probably designed to approximate the tropical year, known at least since Hipparchus. It has a regular year of 365 days divided into 12 and Gregorian calendars The Gregorian calendar is the internationally accepted civil calendar. It was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII, after whom the calendar was named, by a decree signed on 24 February 1582, a papal bull known by its opening words Inter gravissimas. The reformed calendar was adopted later that year by a handful of countries, with other countries. The calendar era A calendar era is the year numbering system used by a calendar. For example, the Gregorian calendar numbers its years in the Western Christian era . The instant, date, or year from which time is marked is called the epoch of the era. There are many different calendar eras to which they refer is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception Annunciation is the Christian celebration of the announcement by the angel Gabriel to Mary that she would become the Theotokos . Despite being a virgin, Mary would miraculously conceive a child who would be called the Son of God. Gabriel told Mary to name her son Jesus, meaning "YHWH delivers". Most of Christianity observes this event or birth The Nativity of Jesus, or simply The Nativity, refers to the accounts of the birth of Jesus of Nazareth in the Gospels and in various apocryphal texts of Jesus Jesus of Nazareth , also known as Jesus Christ or simply Jesus, is the central figure of Christianity, which views him as the Messiah foretold in the Old Testament. Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God (in the concept of the Trinity, he is God [as] the Son), who came to provide humankind with salvation and reconciliation with God by his, with AD denoting years after the start of this epoch In the fields of chronology and periodization, an epoch means an instant in time chosen as the origin of a particular era. The "epoch" then serves as a reference point from which time is measured. Time measurement units are counted from the epoch so that the date and time of events can be specified unambiguously, and BC denoting years before the start of this epoch. There is no year zero "Year zero" does not exist in the widely used Gregorian calendar or in its predecessor, the Julian calendar. Under those systems, the year 1 BC is followed by AD 1. However, there is a year zero in astronomical year numbering and in ISO 8601:2004 (where it coincides with the Gregorian year 1 BC) as well as in all Buddhist and Hindu in this scheme, so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC.

The Gregorian calendar, and the year numbering system associated with it, is the calendar system with the most widespread use in the world today. For decades, it has been the unofficial global standard, recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations The United Nations Organization or simply United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and the achieving of world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of and the Universal Postal Union The Universal Postal Union is an international organization that coordinates postal policies among member nations, and hence the worldwide postal system. Each member country agrees to the same set of terms for conducting international postal duties. The Universal Postal Union's headquarters are located in Berne, Switzerland. It is also a basis of scholarly dating, though some people adopt the Common/Christian Era Common Era, abbreviated as CE, is one of the designations for the world's most commonly used year-numbering system. The numbering of years using Common Era notation is identical to the numbering used with Anno Domini notation, 2010 being the current year in both notations and neither using a year zero. Common Era is also known as Christian Era and labels, retaining the same numeric values but using the label "CE" (Common/Christian Era) instead of "AD", and "BCE" (Before the Common/Christian Era) instead of "BC".

The term Anno Domini is Medieval Latin Medieval Latin was the form of Latin used in the Middle Ages, primarily as a medium of scholarly exchange and as the liturgical language of the medieval Roman Catholic Church, but also as a language of science, literature, law, and administration. Despite the clerical origin of many of its authors, medieval Latin should not be confused with, translated as In the year of (the/Our) Lord.^[1][2]:782 It is sometimes specified more fully as Anno Domini Nostri Iesu (Jesu) Christi ("In the Year of Our Lord Jesus Christ").

Traditionally, English English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into South-East Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria. Following the economic, political, military, scientific, cultural, and colonial influence of Great Britain and the United Kingdom from the 18th century, and of has copied Latin Latin or sometimes Roman is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Although often considered a dead language, in view of the fact that it has no native, fluent speakers, Latin continues to be taught in schools and has been, and currently is, used in the process of new word production in modern languages from many usage by placing the abbreviation before the year number for AD; since BC is not derived from Latin it is placed after the year number (for example: 68 BC, but AD 2010). However, placing the AD after the year number (as in "2010 AD") is now also common. The abbreviation is also widely used after the number of a century A century is one hundred consecutive years. It is also a Roman term. Centuries are numbered ordinally in English and many other languages (e.g. "the seventh century AD/CE") or millennium A millennium is a period of time equal to one thousand years (from the Latin phrase mille, thousand, and annus, year), often but not necessarily related numerically to a particular dating system, as in "fourth century AD" or "second millennium AD" (although conservative usage formerly rejected such expressions).^[3]

Because BC is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, it is sometimes incorrectly concluded that AD means After Death,^[4] i.e., after the death of Jesus. If that were true, the thirty-three or so years of his life would not be in any era.^[5][6]

History

The Anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus Dionysius Exiguus (c. 470 – c. 544) was a sixth century monk born in Scythia Minor, modern Dobruja, Romania (a small portion is in Bulgaria). He was a member of the Scythian monks community concentrated in Tomis, the major city of Scythia Minor, who used it to compute the date Computus is the calculation of the date of Easter in the Christian calendar. The name has been used for this procedure since the early Middle Ages, as it was one of the most important computations of the age of the Christian A Christian (pronounced /ˈkrɪstʃən/ ) is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, who Christians believe is the Messiah (the Christ in Greek-derived terminology) prophesied in the Hebrew Bible, and the son of God. Most Christians believe in the doctrine of Easter Easter (Ēostre ; Greek: Πάσχα Paskha, from Hebrew: פֶּסַח Pesakh,/Passover) is the central religious feast in the Christian liturgical year. According to Christian scripture, Jesus was resurrected from the dead on the third day after his crucifixion. Some Christians celebrate this resurrection on Easter Day or Easter Sunday (also festival, and to identify the several Easters in his Easter table Dionysius Exiguus' Easter table was constructed in the year 525 by Dionysius Exiguus for the years 532–626. He obtained it from an Easter table attributed to Patriarch Cyril of Alexandria for the years 437–531. The latter was constructed around the year 440 by means of extrapolation from an Alexandrian Easter table constructed around the year 3, but did not use it to date any historical event. His system was to replace the Diocletian era The anno Diocletiani era or the Diocletian era or the Era of Martyrs is a method of numbering years used by Alexandrian Christians during the fourth and fifth centuries. Western Christians were aware of it but did not use it. It was named for the Roman Emperor Diocletian who instigated the last major persecution against Christians in the Empire that had been used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. The last year of the old table, Diocletian 247, was immediately followed by the first year of his table, AD 532. When he devised his table, Julian calendar The Julian calendar, a reform of the Roman calendar, was introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, and came into force in 45 BC . It was chosen after consultation with the astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria and was probably designed to approximate the tropical year, known at least since Hipparchus. It has a regular year of 365 days divided into 12 years were identified by naming the consuls Consul was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire. The title was also used in other city states and also revived in modern states, notably in the First French Republic. The relating adjective is consular, from the Latin consularis (which has been used, substantiated, as a title in its own right) who held office that year — he himself stated that the "present year" was "the consulship of Probus Junior Flavius Anicius Probus Iunior was a Roman Consul in 525. He was the son of Flavius Anicius Olybrius (ca 470 - 504?), c.p. 476/83, PPo It. 503, paternal grandson of Flavius Anicius Probus (b. ca 435) and great-grandson of Flavius Anicius Probus (ca 405 - aft. 459), Praetor in 424 and v. ill. (vir illustrissimus) in 459, and wife Adelphia (ca 410 -", which was 525 years "since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ".^[7] Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus' Incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the specific year during which his birth or conception occurred.

"However, nowhere in his exposition of his table does Dionysius relate his epoch to any other dating system, whether consulate, Olympiad, year of the world, or regnal year of Augustus; much less does he explain or justify the underlying date."^[2]:778

Blackburn & Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended for the Nativity The Nativity of Jesus, or simply The Nativity, refers to the accounts of the birth of Jesus of Nazareth in the Gospels and in various apocryphal texts or Incarnation Incarnation which literally means embodied in flesh or taking on flesh, refers to the conception and birth of a sentient creature who is the material manifestation of an entity, god or force whose original nature is immaterial. Among the sources of confusion are:^[2]:778–9

• In modern times Incarnation is synonymous with the conception, but some ancient writers, such as Bede Bede , also referred to as Saint Bede or the Venerable Bede (Latin: Beda Venerabilis), was a monk at the Northumbrian monastery of Saint Peter at Monkwearmouth, today part of Sunderland, England, and of its companion monastery, Saint Paul's, in modern Jarrow (see Wearmouth-Jarrow), both in the Kingdom of Northumbria, considered Incarnation to be synonymous with the Nativity
• The civil, or consular year began on 1 January but the Diocletian year began on 29 August
• There were inaccuracies in the list of consuls
• There were confused summations of emperors' regnal years

Date of birth

See also: Nativity of Jesus The Nativity of Jesus, or simply The Nativity, refers to the accounts of the birth of Jesus of Nazareth in the Gospels and in various apocryphal texts and Chronology of Jesus The Chronology of Jesus depicts the attempt to establish a historical chronology for the events of the life of Jesus depicted in the four canonical gospels . Certain events in the chronology of Jesus as described in the Gospels can be cross-referenced to Jewish festivals, and to the tenure of historical rulers and high priests. However other

According to Doggett, "Although scholars generally believe that Christ was born some years before AD 1, the historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating"^[8]. According to Matthew 2:1^[9] and Matthew 2:16^[10], King Herod the Great Herod , also known as Herod I or Herod the Great (born 74 BC, died 4 BC in Jericho, according to other data, 1 BC), was a Jewish Roman client king of Israel. He was described as "a madman who murdered his own family and a great many rabbis." He is also known for his colossal building projects in Jerusalem and other parts of the ancient was alive when Jesus was born The Chronology of Jesus depicts the attempt to establish a historical chronology for the events of the life of Jesus depicted in the four canonical gospels . Certain events in the chronology of Jesus as described in the Gospels can be cross-referenced to Jewish festivals, and to the tenure of historical rulers and high priests. However other, and ordered the Massacre of the Innocents The Massacre of the Innocents is an episode of infanticide by the King of Judea, Herod the Great, that appears in the Gospel of Matthew 2:16-18. The author, traditionally Matthew the Evangelist, reports that Herod ordered the execution of all young male children in the village of Bethlehem, so as to avoid the loss of his throne to a newborn King in response to his birth. Blackburn and Holford-Strevens fix King Herod's death shortly before Passover Celebrates the Exodus, the freedom from slavery of the Children of Israel from ancient Egypt that followed the Ten Plagues in 4 BC^[2]:770, and say that those who accept the story of the Massacre of the Innocents sometimes associate the star that led the Biblical Magi In Christian tradition, the Magi , also referred to as the (Three) Wise Men, (Three) Kings, or Kings from the East, are a group of distinguished foreigners who are said to have visited Jesus after his birth, bearing gifts of gold, myrrh and frankincense. They are regular figures in traditional accounts of the nativity and in celebrations of with the planetary conjunction Conjunction is a term used in positional astronomy and astrology. It means that, as seen from some place , two celestial bodies appear near one another in the sky. The event is also sometimes known as an appulse of 15 September 7 BC or Halley's comet Halley's Comet or Comet Halley is the most famous of the periodic comets, and is visible from Earth every 75 to 76 years. Many comets with long orbital periods may appear brighter and more spectacular, but Halley is the only short-period comet that is clearly visible to the naked eye, and thus, the only naked-eye comet that might appear twice in a of 12 BC (less likely since comets were usually considered bad omens); even historians who do not accept the Massacre accept the birth under Herod as a tradition older than the written gospels.^[2]:776

The Gospel of Luke The Gospel According to Luke , generally shortened to the Gospel of Luke, is the third and longest of the four canonical Gospels. This synoptic gospel is an account of the life and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth. It details his story from the events of his birth to his Ascension. The author is traditionally identified as Luke the Evangelist states that Jesus was born during the reign of the Emperor Augustus Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus was the first ruler of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from January 27 BC until his death.[note 1] Born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, he was adopted posthumously by his great-uncle Gaius Julius Caesar in 44 BC, and between then and 31 BC was officially named Gaius Julius Caesar. In 27 BC the Senate awarded him the and while Cyrenius Publius Sulpicius Quirinius was a Roman aristocrat. As governor of Syria, he carried out a famous census in Judea (or Quirinius) was the governor of Syria Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية‎), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest (2:1–2). Blackburn and Holford-Strevens^[2]:770 indicate Cyrenius/Quirinius' governorship of Syria began in AD 6, which is incompatible with conception in 4 BC, and say that "St. Luke raises greater difficulty ...Most critics therefore discard Luke". Some scholars rely on John 8:57^[11]: "thou are not yet fifty years old", to place Christ's birth in circa 18 BC.^[2]:776

Popularization

The Anglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxons is the term usually used to describe the invading Germanic tribes in the south and east of Great Britain from the early 5th century AD, and their creation of the English nation, to the Norman conquest of 1066. The Benedictine monk, Bede, identified them as the descendants of three Germanic tribes: historian the Venerable Bede Bede , also referred to as Saint Bede or the Venerable Bede (Latin: Beda Venerabilis), was a monk at the Northumbrian monastery of Saint Peter at Monkwearmouth, today part of Sunderland, England, and of its companion monastery, Saint Paul's, in modern Jarrow (see Wearmouth-Jarrow), both in the Kingdom of Northumbria, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius, used Anno Domini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People The Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum is a work in Latin by Bede on the history of the Church in England, and of England generally; its main focus is on the conflict between Roman and Celtic Christianity, finished in 731. In this same history he also used another Latin Latin or sometimes Roman is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Although often considered a dead language, in view of the fact that it has no native, fluent speakers, Latin continues to be taught in schools and has been, and currently is, used in the process of new word production in modern languages from many term, "ante vero incarnationis dominicae tempus" ("the time before the Lord's true incarnation"), equivalent to the English English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into South-East Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria. Following the economic, political, military, scientific, cultural, and colonial influence of Great Britain and the United Kingdom from the 18th century, and of "before Christ", to identify years before the first year of this era,^[12] thus establishing the standard of not using a year zero "Year zero" does not exist in the widely used Gregorian calendar or in its predecessor, the Julian calendar. Under those systems, the year 1 BC is followed by AD 1. However, there is a year zero in astronomical year numbering and in ISO 8601:2004 (where it coincides with the Gregorian year 1 BC) as well as in all Buddhist and Hindu,^[13] even though he used zero in his computus Computus is the calculation of the date of Easter in the Christian calendar. The name has been used for this procedure since the early Middle Ages, as it was one of the most important computations of the age. Both Dionysius and Bede regarded Anno Domini as beginning at the incarnation of Jesus, but "the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was not drawn until the late 9th century, when in some places the Incarnation epoch was identified with Christ's conception, i.e., the Annunciation on March 25" (Annunciation style).^[2]:881

On the continent of Europe Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus region (Specification of borders) and the Black Sea to the southeast. Europe is bordered by the, Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by Alcuin. Its endorsement by Emperor Charlemagne and his successors popularizing the usage of the epoch and spreading it throughout the Carolingian Empire ultimately lies at the core of the system's prevalence. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, popes continued to date documents according to regnal years for some time, but usage of AD gradually became more common in Roman Catholic countries from the 11th to the 14th centuries.^[14] Eastern Orthodox countries only began to adopt AD instead of the Byzantine calendar in 1700 when Russia did so, with others adopting it in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Even though Anno Domini was in widespread use by the 9th century, Before Christ (or its equivalent) did not become widespread until the late 15th century.^[15]

Change of year

When the reckoning from Jesus' incarnation started replacing the previous dating systems in western Europe, a Christian feastday was almost naturally chosen to begin the year: Christmas, Annunciation, or Easter. Thus, year number changed on different days, which created slightly different styles in chronology:^[16]

• from 25 December 753 AUC (today in 1 BC), i.e. from the birth of Jesus. It was called "Nativity style" and had been spread by the Venerable Bede together with the Anno Domini in the early Middle Ages. That reckoning of the year of Grace from Christmas was used in France England and most of western Europe (except Spain) till the 12th century (when it was replaced by Annunciation style), and in Germany till the second quarter of the 13th century.
• from 25 March 753 AUC (today in 1 BC), i.e. from the incarnation of Jesus. That first "Annunciation style" appeared in Arles at the end of the 9th century then spread to Burgundy and northern Italy. It was not commonly used and was called "calculus pisanus" since it was adopted in Pisa and survived there till 1750.
• from 25 March 754 AUC (today in 1 AD), one year after the incarnation of Jesus. That second "Annunciation style" may have originated in Fleury Abbey in the early 11th century but it was spread by the Cistercians. Florence adopted that style in opposition to the one of Pisa, so it got the name of "calculus florentinus". It soon spread in France and also in England where it became common in the late 12th century and lasted until 1751.
• from Easter, starting in 754 AUC (1 AD). That "mos gallicanus" bound to a movable feast was introduced in France by king Philip Augustus (1165-1180-1223), maybe to establish a new style in the provinces reconquered over England. However, it never spread beyond the ruling élite.

With those various styles, the same day could, in some cases, be dated in 1099, 1100 or 1101 AD.

Other eras

During the first six centuries of what would come to be known as the Christian era, European countries used various systems to count years. Systems in use included consular dating, imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating.

Although the last non-imperial consul, Basilius, was appointed in 541 by Emperor Justinian I, later emperors through Constans II (641–668) were appointed consuls on the first 1 January after their accession. All of these emperors, except Justinian, used imperial post-consular years for all of the years of their reign alongside their regnal years.^[17] Long unused, this practice was not formally abolished until Novell XCIV of the law code of Leo VI did so in 888.

Another calculation had been developed by the Alexandrian monk Annianus around the year AD 400, placing the Annunciation on 25 March AD 9 (Julian)—eight to ten years after the date that Dionysius was to imply. Although this Incarnation was popular during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire, years numbered from it, an Era of Incarnation, were only used, and are still only used, in Ethiopia, accounting for the eight- or seven-year discrepancy between the Gregorian and the Ethiopian calendars. Byzantine chroniclers like Maximus the Confessor, George Syncellus, and Theophanes dated their years from Annianus' creation of the World. This era, called Anno Mundi, "year of the world" (abbreviated AM), by modern scholars, began its first year on 25 March 5492 BC. Later Byzantine chroniclers used Anno Mundi years from 1 September 5509 BC, the Byzantine Era. No single Anno Mundi epoch was dominant throughout the Christian world.

Spain and Portugal continued to date by the Era of the Caesars or Spanish Era, which began counting from 38 BC, well into the Middle Ages. In 1422, Portugal became the last Catholic country to adopt the Anno Domini system.^[14]

The Era of Martyrs, which numbered years from the accession of Diocletian in 284, who launched the last yet most severe persecution of Christians, was used by the Church of Alexandria, and is still used officially by the Coptic church. It also used to be used by the Ethiopian church. Another system was to date from the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, which as early as Hippolytus and Tertullian was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini (AD 29), which appears in the occasional medieval manuscript.

Synonyms

Common Era

Anno Domini is sometimes referred to as the Common Era, Christian Era, or Current Era (abbreviated as C.E. or CE). CE is often preferred by those who desire a term not explicitly related to Christian conceptions of time. For example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that "B.C.E./C.E. …do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B.C./A.D." Upon its foundation, the Republic of China adopted the Western calendar in 1912 and the translated term was 西元 (lit. Western Era). Later, in 1949, the People's Republic of China reiterated the use of the Gregorian calendar and accepted the term gōngyuán (公元, lit. Common Era).

Numbering of years

In the Julian and Gregorian calendars, AD 1 is preceded by 1 BC. For computational reasons astronomers and the ISO 8601 standard use a time scale (astronomical year numbering) in which AD 1 = year 1, 1 BC = year 0, 2 BC = year −1, etc.^[18]

Controversy

Some adherents of other religions and some non-believers feel that basing the dating system on the life of Jesus Christ is a form of bias towards the Christian religion.^[19][20] Anno Domini is sometimes referred to as the Common Era (or Christian Era, or Current Era, abbreviated as C.E. or CE). CE and BCE (Before the Common Era) are often preferred by those who desire a dating system not explicitly related to the Christian religion.^[21] However, despite the different names, the dating scheme remains the same.

One possible alternative dating system is the Holocene calendar in which the year 1 HE (Holocene/Human Era) is 10,000 BC, the approximate date of the beginning of human civilization. You simply add 10,000 to the current AD year to get the HE year. Thus, 2010 AD is 12010 HE.

Notes and references

Notes:

1. ^ "Anno Domini". Merriam Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. 2003. http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/Anno%20Domini. Retrieved 3 February 2008. "Etymology: Medieval Latin, in the year of the Lord".
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Blackburn, Bonnie; Leofranc Holford-Strevens (2003). The Oxford companion to the Year: An exploration of calendar customs and time-reckoning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-214231-3. (reprinted & corrected, originally published 1999)
3. ^ Chicago Manual of Style, 1993, p. 304.
4. ^ What is the meaning of BC and AD (B.C. and A.D.)? – Got Questions Ministries. Retrieved February 2, 2010.
5. ^ Donald P. Ryan, (2000), 15.
6. ^ Paul Brians. (n.d.). "A.D." in Common Errors in English Usage. (Washington State University faculty website.) Retrieved 2 February 2010
7. ^ Nineteen year cycle of Dionysius Introduction and First Argumentum.
8. ^ Doggett 1992, 579.
9. ^ Matthew 2:1
10. ^ Matthew 2:16
11. ^ John 8:57
12. ^ Bede 731, Book 1, Chapter 2, first sentence.
13. ^ Compare Bede 731, Book 1, Chapter 2, first sentence, with Chapter 3.
14. ^ ^{a b} Gerard, 1908
15. ^ Werner Rolevinck in Fasciculus temporum (1474) used Anno ante xpi nativitatem (in the year before the birth of Christ) for all years between creation and Jesus. "xpi" is the Greek χρι in Latin letters, which is a cryptic abbreviation for christi. This phrase appears upside down in the center of recto folios (right hand pages). From Jesus to Pope Sixtus IV he usually used Anno christi or its cryptic form Anno xpi (on verso folios—left hand pages). He used Anno mundi alongside all of these terms for all years.
16. ^ C.R. Cheney, A Handbook of Dates, for students of British history, Cambridge University Press, 1945-2000, pp. 8-14.
17. ^ Roger S. Bagnall and Klaas A. Worp, Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt, Leiden, Brill, 2004.
18. ^ To convert from a year BC to astronomical year numbering, reduce the absolute value of the year by 1, and prefix it with a negative sign (unless the result is zero). For years AD, omit the AD and prefix the number with a plus sign (plus sign is optional if it is clear from the context that the year is after the year 0). [Doggett, 1992, p. 579]
19. ^ "Trinity University trustees keeping 'Year of our Lord' on diplomas". KENS 5 TV. April 22, 2010. http://www.kens5.com/news/Trinity-trustees-keeping-Year-of-our-Lord-on-diplomas-91854709.html.
20. ^ Mohler Jr., R. Albert (April 21, 2010). "'The Year of Our Lord' - Diploma Trouble in Texas". The Christian Post. http://www.christianpost.com/article/20100421/the-year-of-our-lord-diploma-trouble-in-texas/.
21. ^ Robinson, B.A. (April 20, 2009). "Controversy over the use of "CE/BCE" or "AD/BC" dating notation". ReligiousTolerance.org. http://www.religioustolerance.org/ce.htm.

References:

• Abate, Frank R(ed.) (1997). Oxford Pocket Dictionary and Thesaurus (American ed. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513097-9.
• Bede. (731). Historiam ecclesiasticam gentis Anglorum. Accessed 7 December 2007.
• Chicago Manual of Style (2nd ed.). University of Chicago. 1993. ISBN 022610389-7.
• Cunningham, Philip A; Starr, Arthur F (1998). Sharing Shalom: A Process for Local Interfaith Dialogue Between Christians and Jews. Paulist Press. ISBN 0-8091-3835-2.
• Declercq, Georges (2000). Anno Domini: The origins of the Christian era. Turnhout: Brepols. ISBN 2-503-51050-7. (despite beginning with 2, it is English)
• Declercq, G. "Dionysius Exiguus and the Introduction of the Christian Era". Sacris Erudiri 41 (2002): 165–246. An annotated version of part of Anno Domini.
• Doggett. (1992). "Calendars" (Ch. 12), in P. Kenneth Seidelmann (Ed.) Explanatory supplement to the astronomical almanac. Sausalito, CA: University Science Books. ISBN 0-935702-68-7.
• Gerard, J. (1908). "General Chronology". In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved July 16, 2008 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03738a.htm
• Richards, E. G. (2000). Mapping Time. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-286205-7.
• Riggs, John (January 2003). "Whatever happened to B.C. and A.D., and why?". United Church News. http://www.ucc.org/ucnews/janfeb03/whatever-happened-to-bc-and.html. Retrieved December 19, 2005.
• Ryan, Donald P. (2000). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Biblical Mysteries. Alpha Books. p. 15. ISBN 002863831X.

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